Merck ventinary manual

Their activity ranges from simply reducing the number of microorganisms to within safe limits of public health interpretations sanitization , to destroying all microorganisms sterilization on the applied surface. In general, antiseptics are applied on tissues to suppress or prevent microbial infection. Disinfectants are germicidal compounds usually applied to inanimate surfaces. Sometimes the same compound may act as an antiseptic and a disinfectant, depending on the drug concentration, conditions of exposure, number of organisms, etc.

To achieve maximal efficiency, it is essential to use the proper concentration of the drug for the purpose intended. The conventional approach to control of viral diseases is to develop effective vaccines, but this is not always possible.

The objective of antiviral activity is to eradicate the virus while minimally impacting the host and to prevent further viral invasion. However, because of their method of replication, viruses present a greater therapeutic challenge than do bacteria. Arthropod parasites ectoparasites are major causes of livestock production losses throughout the world. In addition, many arthropod species can act as vectors of disease agents for both animals and people. Treatment with various parasiticides to reduce or eliminate ectoparasites is often required to maintain health and to prevent economic loss in food animals.

Some ectoparasiticides were derived from pesticides used to protect crops. The choice and use of ectoparasiticides depend to a large extent on husbandry and management practices, as well as on the type of ectoparasite causing the infestation. Endectocides are capable of killing both internal and external parasites. Accurate identification of the parasite or correct diagnosis based on clinical signs is necessary for selection of the appropriate parasiticide.

The selected agent can be administered or applied directly to the animal, or introduced into the environment to reduce the arthropod population to a level that is no longer of economic or health consequence. Achieving increased efficiency of conversion of feed into human food products of high quality, without posing any significant risk to the consumer, is an important goal of livestock producers worldwide.

The physiologic mechanisms involved in converting feed into muscle, fat, and bone by animals are increasingly being elucidated. Recently, consumer concerns about additives for food production have focused on animal safety, organoleptic quality, and the potential human health hazards of the food we eat.

The Merck Manual Go-To Home Guide for Symptoms takes complex medical information and makes it easy to understand and accessible to an everyday audience. It covers a wide range of everyday symptoms, from abdominal pain to wheezing, and almost everything in between. Every section provides a comprehensive look at each symptom's Causes: both common and less-common, Evaluation: warning signs, when to see a doctor, what the doctor does, and testing, Treatment: a wide-array of options, and Key points: the most important information about the symptom.

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Experimental infection of goat kids, lambs, and calves resulted in a decreased feed efficiency and subsequently a decreased weight gain. Most infections of veterinary health importance are by G duodenalis, a species complex of different Gross intestinal lesions are seldom evident, although microscopic lesions, consisting of villous atrophy and cuboidal enterocytes, may be present.

Koudela B, Vitovec J. Experimental giardiasis in goat kids. Vet Parasitol. The two main methods to diagnose Giardia infection are identification of Giardia cysts, and considerably less frequently, trophozoites in fecal samples and detection of Giardia antigen in fecal samples. Sodium chloride, sucrose, or sodium nitrate flotation media may be too hypertonic and distort the cysts. Staining cysts with iodine aids in identification.

Because Giardia cysts are excreted intermittently, infections may be missed; therefore, several fecal examinations should be performed if giardiasis is suspected eg, three samples collected over 3—5 consecutive days.

Because Giardia cysts rupture if dried or exposed to heat or extreme cold, the empty cysts may be difficult to see and may not have the same flotation characteristics as intact cysts. For laboratories with a fluorescent microscope, an immunofluorescent antibody staining of the cyst walls IFAT may be a rapid and easy way to detect them.

Several commercial IFAT kits are available, with the antibodies usually coupled to fluorescein isothiocyanate. They should not be confused with yeast or with trichomonads, which have a single rather than double nucleus, an undulating membrane, and no concave ventral surface. The "falling leaf" swimming motion of Giardia trophozoites is also characteristic. Giardia antigen that occurs in feces can be a useful method to diagnose Giardia infection, should infection be suspected but no cysts observed on microscopic examination.

Microtiter plate-format ELISA tests to diagnose Giardia infection in animals are apparently not commercially available, but some veterinarians have reported success with those designed for use in humans working satisfactorily with dog samples, or in-house plate-format ELISA tests can be used.

More commonly, and available from different commercial suppliers, are ELISA-based in-clinic tests, mostly for dog samples, that use lateral flow technology; these are simple to use and may provide a result within minutes. Different tests vary in their sensitivity and specificity; information about these differences is proprietary. Given the relative expense and defined shelf-life of these tests, it may be useful to investigate before investing in a particular test and to compare with other tests such as IFAT or in-house plate-format ELISA as a component of ongoing quality control.

Molecular methods PCR array are also available for diagnosis but are rarely used in a routine diagnostic setting. In some situations eg, in outbreaks or if a human case and an infected animal are in the same household , determining which assemblage of Giardia is causing the infection may be relevant.

Different protocols to identify the various assemblages have been published; however, relatively large numbers of nucleated cysts may be necessary for successful DNA extraction and amplification at target genes. Unequivocal results may be elusive, particularly in dogs. There is some debate concerning whether animals without clinical signs that continue to shed Giardia cysts, even after treatment, should continue to be treated. Such cases need to be evaluated on an individual basis, preferably using a clinical decision-tree type format.

Indeed, some guidelines advise against treating animals with subclinical infection; however, risk of transmission to other susceptible hosts should be considered, and strict hygiene measures Control Giardiasis is an intestinal infection with the protozoan flagellate parasite Giardia spp. Drug treatment regimens should probably aim to stop clinical signs rather than eliminate cyst shedding.

Treatment approval varies between country; no drugs are approved for treatment of giardiasis in dogs and cats in the US, and no drug is licensed for treatment of Giardia infection in ruminants or other livestock.

It is reported to stop shedding of Giardia cysts in dogs, with no adverse effects reported, and is safe for pregnant and lactating animals. Fenbendazole is therefore considered a first-line drug for treatment, but metronidazole can be considered, either alone or together with fenbendazole, should clinical signs continue.

Albendazole is not recommended for use in dogs and cats because of possible bone marrow suppression. Other agents have also been tried experimentally, especially when more usual treatment regimens have been unsuccessful. In general, published reports of such investigations indicate that the novel treatment has been successful.

That different treatments are often tried indicates frequent frustration with cyst shedding, and sometimes clinical signs, continuing after treatment. It is unclear whether this indicates treatment failure or re-infection, although both may play a role. Supportive or supplementary therapies such as probiotic treatment have been suggested, but there is little reliable evidence that such therapies are effective.

Giardia cysts are immediately infective when passed in the feces and survive well in the environment, particularly in damp and cool conditions in which cysts may stay infective for months. Cysts are a source of infection and reinfection for animals, particularly those in crowded conditions eg, kennels, catteries, or intensive rearing systems for production animals. Thus, control should include removing feces as soon as possible at least daily and disposing of potentially infectious waste.

Infected dogs and cats should be bathed to remove cysts from the hair coat, and use of a shampoo containing chlorhexidine digluconate has been recommended. Prompt and frequent removal of feces limits environmental contamination, as does subsequent disinfection. Cysts are inactivated by most quaternary ammonium compounds, steam, and boiling water.

Although no disinfectants are registered to kill Giardia cysts, regular frequent washing and drying of blankets, bedding, and food and water containers, along with other normal good hygiene practices, can limit transmission to other hosts and reinfection after recovery. Isolating of diarrheic pets or diagnosed carriers will also limit transmission. To increase the efficacy of disinfectants, solutions should be left for 5—20 minutes before being rinsed off contaminated surfaces.

Disinfection of grass yards or runs is impossible, and these areas should be considered contaminated for at least a month after infected dogs were last present. Cysts are susceptible to desiccation, and areas should be allowed to dry thoroughly after cleaning. Giardia duodenalis infects a wide range of hosts, including humans and most pets and livestock, although not all isolates are infectious to all animals.